Throwing Projectiles:

Rolf Degen

@DegenRolf

·

46m

A man's ability to throw projectiles overhead leaves telltale traces on his face. Humans have a remarkable and unique capacity to throw projectile weapons. The ability to throw overhand with power and accuracy, to wound and kill from afar, is a derived adaptation within the genus Homo that undoubtedly had a profound effect on the success of our ancestor, by offering advantages in fighting and hunting. As a result, the capacity to quickly infer this trait in others could have also been adaptive for the purposes of assessing coalitional partners, rivals and potential mates. The current research investigates whether people can accurately infer the overhand throwing ability of others based on facial appearance. We demonstrated that face-based inferences of overhand throwing ability are accurate, predicting an analogue of ancestral projectile weaponry, the javelin, among male track and field athletes. Moreover, we found that javelin throwers have distinctive facial shapes, which may be driving these perceptions. Facial morphometric analyses showed that javelin throwers could be distinguished from the other track and field athletes by more prominent brows, a narrower interorbital distance, a broader mid-face and a more elongated chin. Finally, we replicate these effects and demonstrate that face-based inferences of overhand throwing ability can be decoupled from perceptions of physical strength and formidability. Overall, the ratings from male and female participants were highly similar across all three studies, which is consistent with the view that face-based inferences of overhand throwing could have been adaptive both in terms of assessing potential rivals and coalitional partners (male–male competition) as well as identifying mating partners that can provide, protect and provision (female choice).

The Good Match:

When are two people well-matched enough that they should or could spend a few decades with each other?

Spannungsfelder / Fields of Tension:

Es gibt da Spannungsfelder, durch die wir uns hindurchbewegen: Spannung zu Idealen, zu Zielen und Ambitionen, zu anderen Personen, zur Erinnerungen.

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There are fields of tension through which we move: tension toward ideals, toward goals and ambitions, toward other people, and toward memories.

Humorous Days:

There are days — and they keep recurring — when I find myself extraordinarily funny. Making people laugh becomes effortless, even though nothing about me feels especially excited or wound up. I can't quite say how humor and lightness found their way into my life. Perhaps it's relaxation, perhaps ambition, or perhaps simply the sense that life is going well.

Teams / Teams:

Es gibt kaum etwas Besseres als Teil eines eingeschworenen und fähigen Teams zu sein oder ein solches aufzubauen und zu leiten.

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Few things in life are better than being part of a tightly knit, highly capable team—or creating and leading one.

Langsames Begreifen / Slow Understanding:

Warum dauert es bei manchen Personen so wahnsinnig lange bis sich da manche Erkenntnisse einstellen.

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Why does it take some people such an extraordinarily long time for certain insights to dawn on them?

Konsequenzen der Passivität / The Consequences of Passivity:

Was hat das für Konsequenzen, wenn ein Mann eine Dekade seines Lebens in einem relativ passiven Zustand verbringt?

Da wird dann wohl vieles nicht erreicht werden, was hätte erreicht werden können. Viele Räume werden nicht betreten werden, die hätten betreten werden können. Vieles wird nicht erlebt werden, das hätte erlebt werden können. Vieles wird nicht erkannt werden, das hätte erkannt werden können, da keine fruchtbaren Erfahrungen den Anstoß zu der Erkenntnis geben konnten.

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What are the consequences when a man spends a decade of his life in a relatively passive state?

Many things will likely remain unachieved that could have been achieved. Many doors will remain unopened that could have been opened. Much will go unexplored that could have been explored. Many experiences will never be had that could have been had. And many insights will never be gained that could have been been gained, because the fruitful experiences that might have given rise to those insights never took place.

Languages:

A man of education or ambition should be able to converse in several languages, and he should be able to speak his native language in a refined and cultivated manner.

Ambitionen / Ambitions:

Warum geht es darum, bestimmte Ambitionen zu kultivieren und zu pflegen?

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Why is it important to cultivate and nurture certain ambitions?

The Single-Phase Ambition Boost:

"The points on why many men ramp up ambition when single ring true:

• Mate attraction is a powerful evolutionary driver. Status, resources, competence, and displays of capability have been reliable signals in mate selection for men across cultures and history. Evolutionary psychology research (e.g., work by David Buss and others) consistently shows this pattern. When the pull of the "mating market" is active, ambition often serves as a strategy. Once paired, that specific pressure eases for many.
• Time and energy redirection is straightforward and underappreciated. A serious relationship is a high-maintenance endeavor—emotionally, logistically, and temporally. Single periods often create a vacuum that gets filled with work, projects, learning, or self-improvement. This isn't always "healthy" channeling; sometimes it's just displacement.
• Restlessness and the visible gap are psychologically potent. Loneliness or lack of immediate belonging can fuel drive. Achievement becomes a proxy for worth or a path out of discomfort. Many high-achievers have described this "productive discontent."

This explains the stereotype of the grinding single guy who levels up, then sometimes coasts after settling down.

Relationships and ambition: the double-edged sword

Not all relationships kill drive; some kill it, some redirect it, and some amplify it.

• The "comfort trap" is real. A stable, supportive relationship can meet core needs for connection, validation, and meaning so effectively that the hunger for external achievement weakens. "I already have enough" is a profound psychological shift. This isn't inherently bad (constant striving can be miserable), but it can lead to stagnation if unchecked.
• Conflict drain and partner misalignment are obvious saboteurs. Energy spent on drama or defending your goals is energy not spent pursuing them.
• The best case—"What can we build together?"—is the ideal. This is where ambition matures from ego-driven or status-driven to purpose-driven. It often becomes quieter and more sustainable precisely because it's less frantic. Some couples who push each other to higher levels: shared businesses, creative projects, family-building with big vision, mutual accountability. The drive doesn't disappear; the why evolves.

Some nuances worth adding

• Individual differences dominate. Personality (especially conscientiousness and neuroticism), age, attachment style, and life stage matter far more than relationship status alone. Some men stay relentlessly ambitious in relationships; others were never that ambitious to begin with. Some thrive in solitude, others wilt.
• It's not just men. Women show similar patterns, though the signals valued in mate selection differ on average (and cultural shifts are changing this). The restlessness-to-achievement channel exists across genders.
• Modern context: Dating apps, economic pressures, and cultural narratives around "self-optimization" probably amplify the single-phase grind for some. At the same time, declining marriage rates and longer single periods in young adulthood create more of these ambition windows.
• The healthy middle: The healthiest trajectory often looks like using single periods for intense growth, then finding a relationship that expands rather than caps that growth. The danger is either perpetual discontent (never satisfied) or premature complacency."

Why do men often become more ambitious when they are single?

"Several reasons may contribute:

1. Mate attraction

   Ambition, competence, status, and achievement can increase attractiveness. Throughout history, men who acquired resources and status often had greater reproductive success.

2. More available time and energy

   Relationships require attention, emotional investment, and time. When single, these resources can be redirected elsewhere.

3. Something to strive for

   Ambition often grows in the presence of a gap between current reality and a desired future. Being single can make that gap more visible.

4. Restlessness

   Many people experience a productive restlessness when they are alone. Work, learning, and achievement can become ways of channeling that energy."
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
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   "Why do some relationships dim ambition?
   
   
   Not all relationships do. Some dramatically increase ambition.
   
   
   But relationships can reduce ambition when they provide enough comfort that striving feels less necessary.
   
   
   A relationship may dim ambition if:
   o It satisfies the need for meaning and belonging that achievement was previously serving.
   o It encourages comfort over growth.
   o A partner is indifferent or hostile toward one's goals.
   o Energy is consumed by relationship conflict.
   o The relationship rewards stability more than development.
   
   
   In such cases, a person may unconsciously think:
   
   
   "I already have enough."
   
   
   The drive that was once directed toward achievement loses some of its fuel."
   
   
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   "A good relationship can enlarge ambition.

   
   

   Then the question changes from:

   "What can I achieve for myself?"

   to

   "What can we build together?"

   Those relationships do not extinguish ambition; they redirect and deepen it. Sometimes the ambition becomes less visible because it is no longer driven by loneliness, insecurity, or competition, but by purpose and commitment."

The Ambitious Man:

"I carry great ambitions in my heart, and I feel their pull every day."

Smarte Assistenten / Smart Assistants:

Wie sehr wird in den kommenden Jahren das Leben der meisten Menschen durch die Allgegenwart von smarten Assistenten geprägt sein.

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To what extent will the lives of most people be shaped by the ubiquity of smart assistants in the coming years?

The Unambitious Man:

A person who has never felt any significant ambitions in his heart.

Der Mitmensch / The Fellow Human Being:

Was macht den Menschen denn wirklich aus? Was lässt ihn uns mögen oder gar lieben?

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What is it that truly defines a person? What is it that makes us like them—or even love them?

Lebenslauf und Wertverlauf / Life Trajectory and Value Trajectory:

Das Leben eines Menschen ein bisschen wie ein Aktienverlauf, mit Höhen und Tiefen.

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A person's life is somewhat like the price chart of a stock, with its highs and lows, its peaks and valleys.

Zweierlei Welten / Two Different Worlds:

Vergleicht man die Welt von einer Person, die über Jahre hinweg viel gewollt, viel angestrebt, viel gelernt und erreicht hat, mit der Welt von einer Person, die über die Jahre hinweg kaum etwas gewollt, kaum etwas angestrebt, kaum etwas gelernt oder erreicht hat, so werden diese Welten recht unterschiedlich geformt und gestaltet sein.

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If one compares the world of a person who, over many years, has wanted much, pursued much, learned much, and achieved much with the world of a person who, over those same years, has wanted little, pursued little, learned little, and achieved little, one will find that these worlds have been shaped and formed in very different ways.

Genuine Character:

"Consistency across time and context is one of the most reliable indicators of genuine character."

Obsess Over Quality:

Make quality a non-negotiable standard in your work.

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Do the highest-quality work you are capable of doing.

The Brain Gym:

The Deep Life:

https://www.thedeeplife.com/

On Planning:

Why does sitting down to make a plan often feel unpleasant?

Punkte / Key Areas of Life:

o Finanzen
o Partnerwahl und Beziehungsleben
o Arbeitsleben
o Sonstiges Sozialleben
o Sport / physische Aktivität
o Geistige Interessen

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o Financial Life
o Romantic Relationships and Partner Choice
o Professional Life
o Social Life
o Physical Activity and Fitness
o Intellectual Interests and Pursuits

Sein und Suche / Being and Seeking:

Du musst dem Anderen
Gar nicht so genau sagen,
Wer Du bist,
Sag' ihm eher,
Was Du suchst!

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You don't need to tell the other person
Exactly who you are.
Instead, tell them
What you are looking for.

Der Durchbruch / The Breakthrough:

Der Durchbruch
Gelingt in manchen Bereichen
Nicht so recht,
Und dennoch sucht man ihn,
Den Durchbruch.

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The breakthrough
Does not quite come
In certain areas,
And yet one keeps searching for it—
That breakthrough.

Tension:

I enjoy feeling the tension when something is at stake.

Interesting People:

Where do we meet deeply interesting people?

Terrible Art Night:

Terrible Art Night: The Funniest Way to Meet New People

Friday, Jun 26 · 7:00 PM to 9:30 PM CEST

Terrible at drawing? Perfect, We need you!
And if you can draw, We’ll make it interesting anyway.
Welcome to the first-ever Terrible Art Night, where bad art is celebrated and meeting new people is actually... Fun!

### How does it work

You’ll be paired (and re-paired) with different people and draw eachother.
We give you ridiculous prompts. No skills required (like Karaoke for drawing).
At the end of every round, you sign your "masterpiece" and gift it to your partner.
The Cursed Collection: You’ll walk away with a pile of hilarious, weird portraits of yourself drawn by total strangers.

### 🧠 Good to know:

This is the easiest way to make friends. You can’t be shy when someone is drawing you as a "grumpy cat."
If you are an artist, we will humble you (prepare to draw with your non-dominant hand).
We provide the paper and pens (simple pencils only, no colors). You just bring the sense of humor (you’ll need it when you see yourself drawn as a potato)

The Dinner Date:

"I can only afford one dinner date with you — so try to enjoy your first and last."

Sharing a Laugh:

"Sharing a laugh is one of the more quietly profound things humans do together — and it's worth unpacking why.

At its core, a shared laugh is a moment of synchronized perception: two or more people suddenly see the same thing the same way, often something incongruous, absurd, or unexpected. The laugh itself is the signal — I see what you see. It's a flash of mutual recognition that requires no words.

A few things make it interesting from a behavioral and cognitive angle:

It's fundamentally social, not solitary. Research consistently shows people laugh far more in the presence of others than alone. Humor isn't just about finding something funny — it's about finding it funny together. The neurological reward seems to be partly about the togetherness itself.

It requires a kind of trust. You can only really laugh with someone if you feel safe enough to drop your guard. Laughter is involuntary and slightly undignified — it disrupts composure. Sharing it means allowing someone to see you momentarily undefended. That's why forced laughter feels hollow and spontaneous laughter feels intimate.

It establishes in-group membership. Shared humor often carries an implicit "we understand something together that others might not." Inside jokes are almost a ritual form of this — they replay the original shared perception and reconfirm the bond.

It's a brief synchrony of worldviews. When you laugh at the same thing, you're briefly revealing that your minds work similarly — that you share assumptions, sensibilities, timing. This is why humor compatibility is often such a reliable signal of deeper compatibility in friendships and relationships.

And it's irreproducible. You can describe a funny moment afterward, but you can rarely recreate it. The shared laugh exists fully only in the moment it happens. That transience is part of what makes it feel like something worth protecting.

In evolutionary terms, it likely serves as social bonding glue — a fast, low-cost way to signal alliance, shared perspective, and goodwill. But phenomenologically, it feels like something richer: a brief proof that you're not entirely alone in how you experience the world."

Gewitztheit / Wit:

Wenn man eine Spur gewitzter und gescheiter wäre als man doch ist: Dann, ja dann!

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If only one were a little wittier and a little wiser than one actually is—then, oh then!

Germany:

Theodore Beers

@theodorebeers

·

8h

One thing I miss about Germany is that it’s full of well-educated smart people with very modest income. They hate spending money – they have almost none – so everything is designed around that. The constant casual ripoffs, hidden fees, etc. prevalent in the US wouldn’t fly there.

Some Bits:

On the blog redesign:

I plan to redesign this blog soon. I've launched a few .com blogs elsewhere in the meantime, but those are still in an experimental phase — ongoing for several months now.

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On Asimov:

I'm currently reading Asimov Laughs Again — a genuinely entertaining book. It's the sequel to Isaac Asimov's Treasury of Humor (the first volume, incidentally, is rather hard to find on Amazon — and I prefer reading paperback anyway).

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On beautiful women:
Every man should have at least one beautiful woman by his side — though three to five, at least for a season, would be even better.

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On books:
I've been reading several books on success and life design lately. I'll be sharing some fresh insights here soon.

Anspruch und Spannung / Standards and Tension:

Die Ansprüche an das Leben, an sich Selbst, an den Partner, an Kollegen, an Freunde, etc., machen das Leben spannungsreich. Ansprüche legen das Niveau fest, auf dem sich das Handeln, etc., bewegen soll. Dieses Niveau zu halten erfordert tendenziell Aufwand. Die Alternative hierzu ist natürlich die Anspruchslosigkeit.

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The standards we hold for life, for ourselves, for a partner, for colleagues, for friends, and so on, make life rich in tension and challenge.

Standards define the level at which our actions and conduct are meant to operate. Maintaining that level generally requires effort.

The alternative, of course, is to have no standards at all.

Klarheit / Clarity:

Sich den Rahmen schaffen, innerhalb von dem man deutlich leben will.

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Create the conditions in which you truly want to live.

Schmerz und Reichtum / Pain and Richness:

In manchem Schmerz liegt Reichtum.

Da sich durch manchen Schmerz erst manche Welten aufschließen.

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There is richness in some kinds of pain.

For it is through certain pains that certain worlds first reveal themselves.

Ein Witziger Kerl / A Witty Fellow:

Eine Person mit Einfallsreichtum.

Einfallsreichtum ist oft notwendig, um sich in schwierigen oder herausfordernden Situationen zurecht zu finden.

Wann und Wo gelangt ein Einfallsreichtum zur Blüte?

Witz, nach Kant, ist die Fähigkeit, neue Zusammenhänge zu detektieren.

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A person with resourcefulness and ingenuity.

Ingenuity is often necessary for finding one's way through difficult or challenging situations.

When and where does ingenuity flourish?

According to Immanuel Kant, wit is the ability to detect new connections.

Deep Work & Slow Productivity:

Will it pay off to read Deep Work or Slow Productivity three times?

Youtube / YouTube:

Wenn man Youtube wie eine Audio-Bibliothek verwendet, was sollte man sich da dann am ehesten anhören?

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If you use YouTube as an audio library, what is most worth listening to?

Pseudo-Productivity:

Cal Newport:

"The use of visible activity as the primary means of approximating actual productive effort."

Smarte Assistenten / Smart Assistants:

Wie sehr machen smarte Assistenten eine Person effektiver?

(Die Antwort hängt stark von der Struktur der Person ab. Ein smarter Assistent wirkt als Multiplikator, nicht als Grundlage. Wer klare Ziele, gutes Urteilsvermögen und die Fähigkeit hat, Aufgaben sinnvoll zu zerlegen, wird durch KI-Assistenten erheblich produktiver. Wer diese Qualitäten nicht mitbringt, wird vor allem effizienter im Produzieren von Mittelmäßigem.)

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How much more effective do smart assistants make a person?

(The answer depends heavily on the structure of the person. A smart assistant acts as a multiplier, not a foundation. Someone with clear goals, sound judgment, and the ability to break tasks down effectively will become significantly more productive through AI assistants. Someone who lacks these qualities will mainly become more efficient at producing mediocrity.)

Erfolg im Fokus / Success in Focus:

Ein bisschen geht's hier auf diesem Blog nun mehr um Erfolg, nun mehr um Ambitionen.

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Warum entbrennt in manchen Situationen der Erfolgswille im Menschen?

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(Titel wie "Schattenseiten der Ambition", "Lichtseiten der Ambition", "The Math of Success", "Skill Acquisition and the Odds of Success" häufen sich im Juni.)

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This blog is becoming a little more focused on success, and a little more focused on ambition.

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Why does the drive for success ignite within a person in certain situations?

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(Titles such as "The Dark Sides of Ambition," "The Bright Sides of Ambition," "The Math of Success," and "Skill Acquisition and the Odds of Success" have been appearing with increasing frequency throughout June.)

The Quality of Life:

Try to predict each day which actions will improve the quality of your life the most—and then act on them.

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Does reading well-selected books significantly improve the quality of your life?

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How does a given action affect the quality of your life?

Moral / Morality:

Eine Art Wette, welche Handlung in einer gegebenen Situation am meisten Wert hat oder generiert.

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A kind of bet about which action, in a given situation, has the greatest value or generates the most value.

Lesen als Wette / Reading as a Bet:

Wir generieren eine Vorhersage oder Wette, welches Buch uns denn am meisten bringen könnte.

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We make a prediction—or place a bet—on which book is most likely to benefit us the most.

Thinking in Bets:

Currently, I am reading Thinking in Bets by Annie Duke. A review will follow.

Das Spiel:

So ist das Spiel.

So wird's gespielt.

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Wollen wir Erfolg haben, in einem Spiel, so haben wir das Spiel zu studieren.

Offenheit:

Warum öffnet sich ein Mensch dem Anderen? Warum gibt er ihm tiefe Einblicke in sein Innenleben?

Beziehungen:

Warum machen sich Frauen in einer Beziehung verwundbar?

"Verletzlichkeit ist keine Entscheidung die man trifft wie eine rationale Wahl. Sie entsteht, wenn das Vertrauen eine bestimmte Schwelle überschreitet — wenn man genug erlebt hat um zu glauben: dieser Mensch hält mich, auch wenn ich mich zeige. Auch wenn ich nicht perfekt bin, auch wenn ich Angst habe, auch wenn ich schwach bin. Das ist kein Gedanke — das ist eine körperliche Entspannung, ein Loslassen das einfach passiert wenn die Bedingungen stimmen.

Und Frauen machen sich verwundbar, weil sie es brauchen — tiefer vielleicht als sie es sich eingestehen. Die gesellschaftliche Erwartung an Frauen ist komplex und widersprüchlich: stark sein, funktionieren, sich kümmern, präsent sein für andere. Das erzeugt eine permanente innere Anspannung. Sich in einer Beziehung wirklich zeigen zu können — mit den Ängsten, den Unsicherheiten, den unschönen Teilen — ist eine enorme Erleichterung. Es ist das Ablegen einer Last die man sonst immer trägt.

Und schließlich: weil Verwundbarkeit die einzige Währung echter Intimität ist. Frauen wissen das intuitiv. Man kann geliebt werden für das was man zeigt — aber man kann nur wirklich geliebt werden für das was man ist. Und das was man wirklich ist, zeigt sich nur in der Verletzlichkeit. Der Moment in dem eine Frau sich wirklich öffnet, ist der Moment in dem sie sagt: ich vertraue dir mit dem was ich wirklich bin. Das ist das größte Geschenk das sie geben kann. Und wenn es angenommen wird — ohne Urteil, ohne Ausnutzung, mit Wärme — dann entsteht eine Bindung die sehr tief und sehr dauerhaft sein kann."

Oder anders:

Warum öffnen sich Menschen überhaupt füreinander?

Warum lassen sie sich auf etwas ein, bei dem sie potentiell Genickbruch erleben können?

Schwierigkeiten:

In schwierigen Situationen zeigen Personen ihren Charakter (oder auch das Nichtvorhandensein eines Charakters) am meisten.

Erfolgswahrscheinlichkeiten:

Was sind die eigenen Ziele?

Was sind die Wahrscheinlichkeiten, dass man diese Ziele erreicht, wenn man nach Plan A handelt? Wenn man nach Plan B handelt? Wenn man gemäß Plan C handelt?

Erfolg:

Immer die Frage:

Was sind die eigenen Erfolgswahrscheinlichkeiten?
Wie lassen sich diese Wahrscheinlichkeiten erhöhen?

Probabilistisches Denken:

Ich möchte mir in den nächsten Monaten sorgfältig das Denken in Wahrscheinlichkeiten und Chancen einüben.

Das Heroische:

Das Starke, Fähige und Furchtlose an einer Person

Creative Achievement:

Creative Achievement: Behavioral Genetic Evidence for Overlap With General Cognitive Ability and for Independent Latent Traits
Timothy Bates, Ph.D.
June 08, 2026 CDT

Abstract

The relationship between creativity and general cognitive ability (g) has long been debated. This study investigates the genetic basis of creative achievement and its overlap with intelligence, expanding the traditional scope of creativity beyond art and science to include enterprising domains (business, military, and politics). Using a twin study design, we analyzed data from 2,141 twins who completed an extended Creative Achievement Questionnaire (CAQ) and three tests of cognitive ability. Enterprising Creativity – strategic manipulating of human systems and resources – emerged as a valuable extension to the CAQ. Structural equation modeling evaluated competing hypotheses of genetic independence, complete overlap, or partial overlap between the constructs. Creative achievement was found to be heritable (h² = .56), with shared environmental influences estimated at zero. A latent creativity factor independent of general cognitive ability (rg = 0) loaded on artistic, scientific, and enterprising domains; residual genetic paths from g to the observed creativity measures were small (.29) or non-significant (–.08 for art). The study thus supports creativity as an independent latent trait, as well as the value of g, especially in science and enterprising creativity on specific achievement.

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"The most striking finding is the complete genetic independence of the latent creativity factor from g (rg = 0). This demonstrates that the genetic architecture of real-world creative achievement is not merely a downstream consequence of general intelligence but reflects a separate, heritable system that operates across artistic, scientific, and enterprising domains."

"The results support the hypothesis that creative achievement is heritable, is independent of cognitive ability at a latent level, but that cognitive ability directly raises specific achievements, especially scientific and enterprising."

Bewusste Ignoranz / Conscious Ignorance:

Manchmal möchte man die Chancen oder Wahrscheinlichkeiten gar nicht zu genau kennen.

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Sometimes one does not want to know the odds or probabilities too precisely.

Lesen / Reading:

Am Lesen führt kein Weg vorbei.

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There is no substitute for reading.

Streben / Serious Striving:

Das Unendliche
Manchmal gespürt, erlebt,
Der Mensch erfährt's,
Der ernsthaft strebt.

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Sich in's Zeug zu legen,
das schließt so vieles auf.

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Infinity,
Sometimes felt,
Sometimes experienced,
A human being comes to know it,
When he strives with genuine seriousness.

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To truly throw oneself into something,
Opens up so many things.

When is it good to believe bad things?

Commentary on McKay & Dennett 

 

Abstract: 56 words 

Main text: 988 words 

References: 724 words 

Total text: 1768 words 

 

When is it good to believe bad things? 

 

Joshua M. Ackerman 

Sloan School of Management 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

1 Amherst St., E40 

Cambridge, MA 02142 

USA 

Tel: 617-258-9102 

joshack@mit.edu 

http://web.mit.edu/joshack/www/ 

 

Jenessa R. Shapiro 

Department of Psychology 

University of California, Los Angeles 

Box 951563 

Los Angeles, CA 90095-1563 

USA 

jshapiro@psych.ucla.edu 

 

Jon K. Maner 

Department of Psychology 

Florida State University 

1107 W. Call Street 

Tallahassee, FL 32306-4301 

USA 

maner@psy.fsu.edu 

http://www.psy.fsu.edu/faculty/maner.dp.html 

 

 

Abstract:  

Positive and negative misbeliefs both may have evolved to serve important adaptive 

functions. Here, we focus on the role of negative misbeliefs in promoting adaptive 

outcomes within the contexts of romantic relationships and intergroup interactions. 

Believing bad things can paradoxically encourage romantic fidelity, personal safety, 

competitive success and group solidarity, as well as other positive outcomes.  

 

 

 

In their article, McKay and Dennett define evolved misbeliefs, or illusions, as those that 

are adaptively superior to fully accurate beliefs. The authors focus their discussion on the 

value of positive misbeliefs, but there are also reasons to believe that negative misbeliefs 

can serve adaptive functions as well. Below, we consider negative misbeliefs within two 

important social contexts: (1) close relationships and (2) intergroup interactions. 

 

Misbeliefs related to close relationships 

 

The formation and maintenance of close relationships are fundamental human pursuits 

(Ackerman & Kenrick, 2008; Kenrick, Griskevicius, Neuberg, & Schaller, in press). 

Romantic relationships are particularly important because mating represents the sine qua 

non of evolutionary success. Positive misbeliefs may aid these romantic pursuits, as in 

McKay and Dennett's example of the over-perception of positive spousal attributes. 

However, close relationships may also benefit from negative illusions. For instance, 

women tend to believe that men are less interested in romantic commitment than those 

men actually are (Haselton & Buss, 2000), especially prior to the onset of sexual activity 

in relationships (Ackerman, Griskevicius, & Li, 2009). McKay and Dennett suggest that, 

although the system that generates such misbeliefs is probably adaptive, misbeliefs 

themselves are not (because accurate beliefs would be equally protective without 

suffering from false positive errors). However, underestimating male commitment could 

lead women to set higher thresholds for suitors to overcome, leading men to expend 

greater effort and investment (see Ackerman & Kenrick, in press), and ultimately 

boosting the romantic returns that women receive (e.g., mate quality, economic resources, 

actual commitment). Conversely, accurate beliefs about potential romantic partners might 

facilitate accurate decision making, but would be unlikely to garner these additional 

benefits. 

 

Another example pertains to misbeliefs about alternative relationship partners. People in 

committed relationships tend to display cognitive biases that inhibit straying from those 

relationships (e.g., Maner, Gailliot, & Miller, 2009; Maner, Rouby, & Gonzaga, 2008), 

such as believing that attractive relationship alternatives are less appealing than they 

actually are (Johnson & Rusbult, 1989; Simpson, Gangestad, & Lerma, 1990). These 

negative illusions down-regulate threats posed by romantic alternatives, increasing the 

long-term success of one's current relationship. Long-term romantic relationships serve 

important functions linked to social affiliation and offspring care, as well as the more 

obvious reproductive benefits, and thus negative misbeliefs about relationship 

alternatives can promote a range of adaptive outcomes. Accurate beliefs about attractive 

alternatives, however, could promote infidelity and destabilize one's relationship.   

 

Misbeliefs related to intergroup interactions 

 

In addition to romantic relationships, group-level relationships are also fundamental 

components of human evolutionary success (Kenrick et al., in press; Neuberg & Cottrell, 

2006). Throughout human evolutionary history, hostile outgroups have posed threats to 

personal safety and group resources. Many of these threats were transient, with periods of 

conflict interspersed with periods of relative peace (e.g., Baer & McEachron, 1982). 

Accurate beliefs acknowledging that outgroups were not always threatening could have 

supported increased intergroup contact. However, the potential for threat in intergroup 

interactions would likely remain high, as initially peaceful or cooperative encounters 

between unfamiliar parties can quickly turn dangerous (e.g., through simple 

misunderstandings or signals of vulnerability). Negative outgroup illusions could have 

enhanced fitness to the extent that they led people to be wary, reducing the probability of 

loss or harm from a hostile outgroup member (see Ackerman et al., 2009).  

 

In fact, negative misbeliefs can strengthen the drive to compete with other groups for 

status and resources (Campbell, 1965; Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood, & Sherif, 1961). For 

example, sports teams may perform better because of the misbeliefs they hold about the 

motivation and skill of their rivals. Similarly, religions may facilitate conversion by 

asserting the falsity and profaneness of other gods. In the political realm, nations are 

frequently in conflict with one another over natural and social resources, and exhibit 

extreme ideological and ethnocentric beliefs as a result (Campbell, 1965). Governments 

that construe other nations as ?Evil Empires? may be more motivated to economically 

out-produce and even attack those nations (thereby attaining resources, if they win). In 

contrast, accurate beliefs about opposing groups would provide no extra incentive to 

compete and might even de-motivate groups with relatively lower standing and abilities. 

 

Much of the work on negative misbeliefs and intergroup threat has explored the role of 

race as a heuristic cue to group membership. People tend to associate particular racial 

groups with specific threats (e.g., Black males with physical danger; Cottrell & Neuberg, 

2005), and these biases become especially strong in the presence of other threat-relevant 

cues (e.g., angry expressions). For example, people believe that neutrally expressive 

outgroup men are more threatening when seen in the context of other, angry outgroup 

men (Shapiro et al., in press); frightened people believe that outgroup men are more 

angry than they truly are (Maner et al., 2005); and pregnant women, whose fetuses are 

especially vulnerable early in development, exhibit greater ethnocentric beliefs during 

their first trimester (Navarrete, Fessler, & Eng, 2007). Such negative illusions could 

promote outgroup avoidance (see also Mortensen et al., in press) which, in evolutionary 

contexts, could have served important self-protective functions. 

 

Finally, misbeliefs about outgroup threat elicit not only outgroup avoidance, but also 

ingroup solidarity (Becker et al., 2009; Coser, 1956; Tajfel & Turner, 1986). This 

solidarity provides a number of advantages. Consider that the pursuit of economic and 

physical resources is often a zero-sum game, and thus groups must manage their 

resources by discouraging exploitation from selfish members. Cooperation is one solution 

to potential intragroup conflict, and negative illusions about the dangers of other groups 

may improve cooperation by providing a common threat and promoting intragroup unity 

(e.g., Hammond & Axelrod, 2006; Van Vugt, De Cremer, & Janssen, 2007).  

 

Conclusion 

 

Many negative misbeliefs continue to provide adaptive benefits in modern times, and yet 

may also result in detrimental social outcomes such as the perpetration of problematic 

stereotypes and prejudices. Despite such modern troubles, there is reason to believe that, 

as with positive misbeliefs, negative misbeliefs evolved to meet recurrent challenges in 

the ancestral world. 

 

 

 

 

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Romantik / Romance:

Romantik macht das Leben so schön.

Die Begeisterung für einen anderen Menschen
und die Begeisterung eines anderen Menschen zu spüren.

Ohne Romantische Bewegtheit bleibt die Begegnung
zwischen Mann und Frau recht an der Oberfläche.

-----

Romance makes life so beautiful.

To feel enthusiasm for another person,
and to feel another person's enthusiasm for you.

Without romantic feeling,
an encounter between a man and a woman
remains rather superficial.

Klare Stunden / Clear Hours:

Klare Stunden sind so gut
Sie kommen stets zu Dir

Wie liebe Gäste
Doch unangekündigt.

-----

Clear hours are a blessing.
They always come to you,
Like cherished guests,
Though never announced beforehand.

Das Kennenlernen / Getting to Know Someone:

Das Kennenlernen zwischen zwei Menschen,
Da liegt meist die tiefste Poesie drinnen,
Und wenn es richtig, richtig schön war
(oder gar immer noch so ist und bleibt),
Dann wird es nie und nicht mehr vergessen,
Dann begleitet es Einen, dann begleitet es Dich,
Dann begleitet es Beide durch das restliche Leben,

als eine Art Reichtum, aus dem, über die Erinnerung,
wieder und wieder geschöpft werden kann.

"So schön kann es sein. Und so ist's auch gemeint."

-----

The process of getting to know another person—
that is where the deepest poetry is usually found.

And if it was truly, truly beautiful
(or perhaps still is, and remains so),
then it is never forgotten.

It stays with you,
it stays with both of you,
accompanying you through the rest of your lives
as a kind of wealth,
from which, through memory,
one can draw again and again.

"It can be this beautiful.
And that is what it is meant to be."

Das Schöne / Beauty:

Die besten Gedichte sind noch ungeschrieben, 

noch nicht geschöpft, noch nicht gefunden.
Die beste Poesie, sie gibt es noch nicht.

-----

The finest poems are still unwritten,
not yet created, not yet discovered.
The finest poetry is still to come.

Large Cities:

Make a habit of spending some weekends in large cities.

A Book per Week

Read one book per week for a while.

Lichtseiten / Vorzüge der Ambition // The Bright Side of Ambition:

Große Ziele bringen Spannung in's Leben.

-----

Big goals add excitement, purpose, and a sense of stakes to life.

Schattenseiten der Ambition / The Dark Side of Ambition:

Manchmal, ja manchmal, kann die Ambition einen Menschen aushöhlen.

-----

Sometimes, yes, sometimes, ambition can hollow a person from within.

Gentle / The Tender Defender:

"The word gentle is an adjective that describes someone or something that is calm, kind, mild, and soft. It implies actions and traits that are not violent, rough, or severe.

A gentle person is considerate, patient, and non-aggressive. They interact in a caring and tender way, making those around them feel safe."

-----

"A Tender Defender embodies this gentleness as their core nature while channeling it into quiet, unwavering strength when protection is needed. They are not loud or domineering warriors; instead, their defense flows naturally from deep care and empathy. Their tenderness is not weakness—it is the very source of their courage.

In peace, the Tender Defender is soft-spoken, emotionally attuned, and quick to offer comfort. They listen without judgment, forgive easily, and create spaces where vulnerability feels welcome.

In conflict, the same tender heart becomes a shield. They will stand calmly but firmly against harm directed at the innocent, the vulnerable, or what they hold sacred. Their defense is measured, never cruel—rooted in justice rather than anger.

In relationships, they protect without smothering. They offer gentle guidance, loyal presence, and a steady hand that says “I’ve got you” without stealing agency from those they love.

The Tender Defender proves that true strength and softness are not opposites. They are two sides of the same coin: the deeper the tenderness, the more resolute the defense. They remind us that the most powerful guardians are often those with the gentlest souls—those who fight not because they enjoy battle, but because peace and the well-being of others matter more than anything.

This archetype appears throughout stories and real life: the quiet parent who becomes fierce when their child is threatened, the empathetic leader who draws hard boundaries against injustice, or the friend who offers the softest words and the strongest back when life gets heavy.

Gentleness, in the Tender Defender, is not the absence of power. It is power used wisely, lovingly, and only when truly necessary."

Spektren und Polaritäten / Spectra and Polarities:

Ich denke, Spektren und Polaritäten sind so etwas wie Schlüsselthemen im menschlichen Leben.

Spektren:

unintelligent bis hochintelligent

willensschwach bis willensstark

unsportlich bis sportlich

hässlich/unschön bis schön

unattraktiv bis attraktiv

arm bis reich

schwach bis kräftig

Polaritäten:

Die Spannung zwischen Mann und Frau

zwischen Wunsch und Realität

zwischen dem eigenwillen Mann und seiner Umwelt

zwischen einem Ziel und der gegenwärtigen Sachlage

zwischen einem Ideal und dem Istzustand.

Ich denke, es macht oft Sinn, die eigene Wahrnehmung für das Vorhandensein von Spektren und Polaritäten zu schärfen; diese, wo man ihnen begegnet, bewusster wahrzunehmen.

-----

I think spectra and polarities are among the key themes of human life.

Spectra:

• from unintelligent to highly intelligent
• from weak-willed to strong-willed
• from unathletic to athletic
• from ugly/plain to beautiful
• from unattractive to attractive
• from poor to wealthy
• from weak to strong

Polarities:

• the tension between man and woman
• between desire and reality
• between an independent-minded man and his environment
• between a goal and the present state of affairs
• between an ideal and the actual state of things

I think it often makes sense to sharpen one's awareness of the existence of spectra and polarities, and to perceive them more consciously wherever one encounters them.