Rapt Chapter Eleven:

"Outside the groves of academe, the fact that an awful lot of little fellows who were once said to “have ants in their pants” or were labeled “fidgety” or even “typical boys” suddenly seem to have an illness that’s treated with powerful psychoactive drugs pushes a lot of cultural buttons."

"Compared to his friends and siblings, Jack found school a struggle, particularly math and foreign languages, and spent much time cooling his heels in the principal’s office. After much testing, the psychologist said that Jack had a florid case of ADHD and referred them to a child psychiatrist who understood the problem and could prescribe an appropriate drug."

"However, as she observes, what you attend to largely determines your experience, which in turn influences who you are. Thus, when children aren’t paying attention to schoolwork and other important activities, “their brains aren’t being remodeled by experience in the ways they should be,” she says. “It’s a very tricky issue.” "

"Thus, a certain student may have trouble focusing on math or Spanish less because of some cognitive deficit than from a thrill-seeking temperamental inclination to tune out what bores him and look for some real action."

"Dopamine’s involvement in the brain’s reward circuitry may explain why individuals who’ve been diagnosed with ADHD are also likelier than others to smoke, drink, and use drugs. Combined with an attention problem, this tendency toward substance abuse suggests that they’re perhaps motivated less by the desire to “get high” in a recreational sense than by the wish to feel and function better—to feel “okay” or “normal,” if only temporarily."

"Every fifty seconds, its activity fluctuates, causing what he calls a “brownout.” No one knows the purpose of these neurological events, but Castellanos has a thesis: the clockwork pulses enable the brain’s circuits to stay “logged on” and available to communicate with one another, even when they’re not being used. “Imagine you’re a cabdriver on your day off,” Castellanos says. “You don’t need to use your workday circuits on a Sunday, but to keep those channels open, your brain sends a ping through them every minute or so. The fluctuations are the brain’s investment in maintaining its circuits online.”

Whatever their neurological raison d’être, Castellanos hopes that the brain’s brownouts will advance the understanding of ADHD. He’s looking for correlations between those pings, which are easily measured, and lapses in attention, which can be gauged by how fast his research subjects press a button when a cue appears. Those who have the disorder take longer than normal to push the button. If such lags turn out to be connected to irregularities in the brain’s periodic fluctuations, they could serve as red flags for other differences, too, perhaps in working memory, motivation, or other functions involved in paying attention."

"Looking for a headache remedy back in 1937, Dr. Charles Bradley tested one such drug on some children who had been institutionalized for being uncontrollable, only to be shocked when their teachers reported that the kids suddenly could sit still and learn."

" “If treatment is done well,” he says, “a child shouldn’t notice the drug, but just think the teacher has gotten better. It’s like glasses—if they’re good, you forget about them.” "

"In our sedentary, school-and-office culture, the tendency to shift focus rapidly and to act first and ask questions later is regarded as a problem. Yet that behavior has persisted in the population because it’s a real advantage in certain situations, from NASCAR races to war zones to the floor of the Stock Exchange. Indeed, on the savannah where we evolved, someone who focused too long and hard on a particular bird, flower, or thought could end up as a predator’s dinner."

"Whenever you put yourself in circumstances that really suit who you are, whether on a mountaintop or in a museum, your brain releases dopamine: the neurochemical that’s affected by stimulants, and is so important to attention, cognition, the ability to anticipate pleasure and reward, and much else. Thus, a child who has a hard time coping in the classroom can derive much satisfaction and encouragement from excelling outdoors or on the basketball court. “A big part of dealing with ADHD is understanding yourself,” says Castellanos. “Everyone has problems. The trick is knowing which situations make yours worse and which ones ameliorate them.” "

"For that matter, everyone can learn to attend better. If you really want to focus on something, says Castellanos, the optimum amount of time to spend on it is ninety minutes. “Then change tasks. And watch out for interruptions once you’re really concentrating, because it will take you twenty minutes to recover.”


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grok:

"Chapter Eleven of Rapt by Winifred Gallagher explores the complexities of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), framing it not just as a modern epidemic but as a condition intertwined with cultural, neurological, and evolutionary factors. The chapter critiques the rapid medicalization of behaviors in children—once dismissed as "ants in their pants" or typical boyish energy—that are now diagnosed as illnesses treatable with powerful stimulants. Through anecdotes, expert insights, and historical context, Gallagher delves into how ADHD affects attention, why it persists, and strategies for managing it effectively, emphasizing that it's often a mismatch between individual temperament and societal demands rather than a straightforward deficit.

The chapter opens by highlighting societal unease with the surge in ADHD diagnoses, particularly among children who exhibit fidgetiness or inattention in structured settings like school. Gallagher recounts the story of Jack, a boy who struggled with math, foreign languages, and behavioral issues, leading to frequent visits to the principal's office. After extensive testing, he was diagnosed with "florid" ADHD and referred to a psychiatrist for medication. This narrative underscores a broader theme: in a culture that prizes sedentary, focused activities, traits like impulsivity and rapid focus-shifting are pathologized, even though they may have evolutionary roots. On the ancient savannah, for instance, hyper-focus on one thing could prove fatal, making quick attentional shifts advantageous in high-stakes environments like war zones, stock trading floors, or sports arenas.

Gallagher stresses that attention shapes experience and brain development. When children fail to engage with schoolwork, their brains miss out on crucial remodeling through those experiences, creating a "tricky issue" for long-term growth. However, she posits that ADHD symptoms might arise less from cognitive deficits and more from a thrill-seeking temperament—individuals tuning out boredom in search of stimulation, which aligns with dopamine's role in the brain's reward system.

A key scientific angle comes from neuroscientist F. Xavier Castellanos, who describes the brain's periodic "brownouts"—fluctuations in activity every 50 seconds that may serve to keep neural circuits "logged on" and ready for use, akin to a cabdriver maintaining channels during downtime. Castellanos hypothesizes these pulses maintain communication between brain regions, and irregularities in them could correlate with ADHD's attentional lapses. His research measures button-press delays in response to cues, finding that those with ADHD react slower, potentially linking these brownouts to deficits in working memory, motivation, or focus.

Dopamine emerges as central: low levels in ADHD brains may drive the need for external stimulation, explaining higher rates of smoking, drinking, and drug use. Rather than seeking recreational highs, individuals might self-medicate to feel "normal" or functional, as dopamine fuels anticipation of reward, cognition, and attention. This ties into why stimulants, which boost dopamine, are effective treatments.

Gallagher traces the accidental discovery of stimulants' benefits for hyperactive children to 1937, when Dr. Charles Bradley tested a drug on institutionalized "uncontrollable" kids as a headache remedy. To his surprise, it enabled them to sit still and learn, laying the groundwork for modern ADHD pharmacotherapy. Castellanos likens well-prescribed medication to glasses: if done right, the child doesn't notice the drug but perceives the world (or teacher) as improved, allowing natural focus without side effects dominating awareness.

The chapter advocates a nuanced approach to treatment, recognizing that medication isn't a cure-all but can normalize function when paired with self-understanding. Everyone, ADHD or not, can optimize attention: Castellanos recommends focusing on tasks for no more than 90 minutes before switching, and warns that interruptions require about 20 minutes to recover from, as regaining deep concentration is neurologically taxing.

Ultimately, Gallagher reframes ADHD as a trait with adaptive potential. By placing oneself in fitting environments—whether outdoor adventures, sports, or creative pursuits—the brain releases dopamine naturally, fostering satisfaction and countering classroom struggles. Castellanos emphasizes self-awareness: "A big part of dealing with ADHD is understanding yourself... knowing which situations make yours worse and which ones ameliorate them." This empowers individuals to leverage strengths, like rapid adaptability, in contexts where they thrive, rather than viewing the condition solely as a hindrance."